Full version

A classroom investigation of the growth of metacognitive awareness in kindergarten children through the writing process

Introduction

Authors

Publisher

A starting point for what metacognition is about focuses on "knowing about knowing and thinking about thinking" (click here for a fuller definition).  It is considered an essential part of learning.  Although research suggests metacognition is an important element in the reading and writing processes, little has so far been discovered about when - and how - it develops in the very young learner.

This small-scale study takes a first step towards addressing this, by looking at the growth of metacognitive awareness in terms of literacy development at (the equivalent of) Year 1. By regularly asking the children the same small series of questions concerning their work and the thought processes that went into it over a six month period, the researcher attempted to raise the children's awareness of the place of thought and strategy in developing writing skills. The research also considered the growth of early writing skills in a classroom that supported the growth of the children's knowledge about what they knew and their thinking about how they thought, i.e. their metacognitive awareness.

The study found that the children in the case study developed vocabulary and thought processes that suggested that metacognitive awareness was taking place, and that this supported advances in various aspects of writing and learning. It provides a model that could be used in classrooms to help children in the development of their growing metacognition.

Keywords:
USA; Early years; Key Stage 1; Nursery Schools; Literacy; Writing; Speaking and listening; Thinking skills; Cognitive development; Metacognition; Creativity

What is metacognition and how does it fit into in early literacy?

The study highlighted research that indicates that learners who are skilled in metacognitive awareness are more strategic and perform better than those who are not.  It regards learners with ‘metacognitive awareness’ as being aware of their thinking and the strategies they are using. 
The basic metacognitive strategies are:

• connecting new information to former knowledge;
• deliberately selecting appropriate thinking strategies from a repertoire; and
• planning, monitoring, and evaluating thinking processes. 

The study worked on the hypothesis that there are two levels to children’s metacognition.  The first level is the acquisition of metacognitive knowledge, the second level is the ability to produce it, which, according to the research, happens over time.

‘Thinking aloud’ is a metacognitive activity, and it has been suggested that practice in thinking aloud can lead students to a better understanding of their thought processes while writing.  Research also suggests that most early learners have a general - though vague - understanding that writing, reading, and language are related but need to gain understanding of the connections.  As they learn to write, children develop strategies to serve as temporary scaffolds, which then drop away as they put together further pieces of the writing/language puzzle.  Among the recommended methods for learning about children’s developing writing is asking them to write, then to read their writing.  Another is to have the children talk about their thinking as they write.  It has also been suggested that one way to encourage the development of metacognition in children is by asking them a series of predictable questions.  By answering these they will be effectively ‘thinking aloud’.

Back to top^

What the study found

Regular interviews with the children confirmed that they were exhibiting and showing growth in their metacognition.  They provided appropriate answers to questions that required them to talk about their thinking and identify strategies that helped them in their writing.

In particular, the study found that:

• children used 'metacognitive terms' to answer the researcher's questions, using the words 'thinking' and 'thought' in answers. All children used these words at least once in the study; many used them repeatedly.  These words were used both in response to questions using these words and ones that did not.  Other metacognitive words used were ‘mind,’ 'idea', 'remembered,' and 'reminded';
• the children were asked the same six questions every two weeks, the first four of which required an ascending degree of metacognitive awareness to answer. By the end of the study, all participants could answer the first question appropriately and 75% the second. The third and fourth questions had fewer appropriate responses but the number of both increased, and by the end of the study there had been 42 (out of 182) appropriate responses to the fourth (most difficult question);
• question five, the one that tested the children's awareness of writing strategies obtained 142 appropriate answers out of 182 over the course of the study;
• at the beginning of the study, only half the children were writing any words at all, by the end of the study all children could write at least some words;
• during the course of the study, the number of words the children wrote increased from an average of 1.6 words per child per session in October to 5.6 words per child per session in March;
• the children's proficiency also increased in terms of:
• a decrease in random letters;
• an increase in children writing stories;
• an increase in 'temporary spelling' (guessing how to spell unfamiliar words); and
• an increase in 'conventional' (accurate) spelling and re-reading;
• during the course of the study, children began asking their classmates the same research interview questions (e.g. how did you decide what to write about today?). The author saw this as a sign the children were beginning to incorporate thinking about thinking into their daily thought processes.

Back to top^

What was the aim and the design of this study?

The purpose of the study was:

• to investigate the metacognitive awareness and growth of children learning to write during their kindergarten year; and
• to explore the growth in children’s writing in an environment that was encouraging them to think about their thinking and writing strategies.

The study was conducted in an environment that surrounded children with books, language, and print and followed the progress of 16 students (10 girls, 6 boys, all aged five plus) attending kindergarten five mornings a week in a small US school.  The curriculum included a daily half hour ‘writers’ workshop’ which was the focus of the research.  Twice a month for six consecutive months the teacher/researcher interviewed the children as they finished writing, asking questions designed to help them reflect on their thinking and strategies they used in their writing.  This was supported by anecdotal records, and observations.  Individual writing folders were used to complete a checklist of writing strategies for each child.

The children’s writing work involved both dictation and individual creative writing, and progressed from drawing at the start of the school year to the addition of letters and words.  By the end of the study some children had progressed to writing short words, while others had started to write sentences and simple stories.

The key parts of this research were the interview questions which the children were asked each time to encourage them to think about their own thought processes:

1. What were you thinking about while you were writing?
2. Why do you think you thought about that?
3. How do you think that idea came into your mind?
4. How did you decide what to write about?
5. How did you figure out how to write down what you wanted to say?
6. How do you think your writing went today? Are you happy with it? Would you do anything differently next time?

The first four questions required progressively higher degrees of metacognition for the children to answer.  The fifth asked for awareness of their own writing strategies and the sixth, self evaluation of their own writing.  In total 182 responses to these questions were documented over the study.

Data collection was by:

• audio and video interviews conducted twice-monthly with each child during writing time; and
• anecdotal records of observations during writing time and other assessments made of each child including maintaining a folder of writing and a monthly checklist of writing strategies. 

The children’s responses were analysed by:

• appropriateness of response;
• how many times the response included the  words “thinking”, “thought” and “mind”; and
• the number of words in and quality of the children’s responses.

Additionally the children’s individual writing folders and writing strategies checklists were reviewed.

Back to top^

What are the implications of the study?

In completing this digest the authors began to ask the following questions about implications for teachers:

• this study offers a model for teaching pupils to think about writing development strategies in quite structured ways at a very early age.  Could the model in this study of a daily writers' workshop and conferencing with students afterwards about their writing, be adapted for use in your classroom to help children in the development of their growing metacognition and writing?
• this study used a short series of questions to help the pupils become more aware of the strategies they were using, so they could use them more consciously and, therefore, more effectively.  How easy or helpful would it be to use these questions in your classroom?  Does it have implications for other areas of learning?  How would building metacognitive awareness of the relationships between numbers support (for example) early numeracy?
• this study supports the theory that asking children a set of predictable questions helps them to give well-thought-out answers (and thus develop metacognitive skills).  Are there any other methods of questioning, or other forms of interaction that might be effective in the classroom?

For researchers:

• through the interviews and observations, a great deal of information was gathered that provided evidence that kindergarten children are capable of metacognitive thought.  However, this is a small-scale observational study.  Is further, larger-scale, broader-spectrum research needed to help practitioners build a picture of the development of meta-cognition from the very start of school?

Back to top^

Where can I find out more?

Another digest, “Effects of a Cognitive Acceleration Programme on Year 1 pupils” looks at how young children’s cognitive skills can be improved through various activities.  Access it here: http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/research/themes/thinkingskills/6553/

Burns, MS & Snow, CE (eds) (1999) Starting out right: A guide to promoting children’s reading success.  National Academy Press.

Ferrari, M & Sternberg, R (1998) The development of mental abilities and styles.  In: W. Damon, D. Kuhn & R. Siegler (eds) Handbook of child psychology Vol 2 Cognition, perception & Language. John Wiley and Sons.

Flavell, JH & Miller, PH (1998) Social Cognition. In: W. Damon, D. Kuhn & R. Siegler (eds) Handbook of child psychology Vol 2 Cognition, perception & Language. John Wiley and Sons.

McGee, LM & Richgels, DJ (2000) Literacy’s Beginnings: supporting young readers and writers. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Neuman, S, Copple, C, & Bredekamp, S (2000) Learning to read and write: developmentally appropriate practices for young children.  National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Sperling, RA, Walls, RT, & Hill, LA (2000) Early relationships among self-regulatory constructs: Theory of mind and preschool children’s problemsolving, Child Study Journal, 30, pp.233 – 252.

Back to top^