How teachers respond to children's eye gaze

Introduction

Authors

Doherty-Sneddon, G. and Phelps, F. G.

Publisher

Educational Psychology Vol.27, No. 1, February 2007, pp. 93-109

[Original title: Teachers' responses to Children's Eye Gaze]

Gaze aversion (GA) is a potentially useful cue during teaching and learning interactions. It can indicate that a child is finding it difficult to find an answer. It can also mean that a child is concentrating on thinking of an answer. If teachers think GA only signals that the child is finding it difficult to think of an answer, they are more likely to interrupt the child's thinking time by offering the child more help. If however, they see GA as a sign of active engagement with difficult material, they are more likely to wait and see if the child can come up with something upon which to build further learning.

Given the potential utility of GA as an educational tool, the researchers set out to investigate whether teachers detected children's gaze behaviours and, if so, how they interpreted them. They found that teachers were aware of children averting their eyes but took it to mean different things. The study signposts a clear link to assessment for learning approaches in which the time teachers allow children before giving an answer (wait time) is critical. Being able to distinguish between the different possible reasons for children averting their gaze may also help teachers decide what sort of help to give children when they interrupt their thinking to support their learning.

What do we know about eye gaze?

In an earlier paper (see Where can I find out more?) the researchers reported on research evidence that showed that behaviours such as eye gaze, gesture and facial expression are important and useful cues during teaching and learning interactions.

The study found that, like adults, older children (aged 8 years) look away more when answering difficult questions than when answering easy ones. The researchers suggest they do so because it minimises the chance of distraction and allows them to concentrate their mental energies on cognition.

When young children (aged 5 years) were explicitly taught gaze aversion their accuracy in relation to answering numerical questions increased compared with a control group.

On the other hand children may look at the teacher while they are listening and trying to understand what s/he is saying because they are searching for visual clues. They may also maintain face-gaze with the teacher when they can’t think of the answer to a question.

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How did teachers respond to pupil's gaze aversion (GA) in observed pupil-teacher interactions?

In order to explore teachers’ responses to pupils’ eye gaze aversion the study analysed thirty-six teacher-pupil interactions in which teachers asked children questions individually. Later the same teachers were given the opportunity to comment on their interactions with pupils which they viewed through video recordings.

The study found that:

the teachers tended to be influenced more by the time it took for a pupil to answer than the time pupils spent averting their eyes; and
about a third of the teachers’ comments about the interactions referred to eye gaze behaviour as a factor influencing their response; and
interpretations of eye gaze behaviour were not consistent across the group of teachers.

The teachers involved in this part of the study did not link a relatively high proportion of time pupils spent averting their gaze with the idea that they are still thinking what their response will be (i.e. They haven’t given up and it is therefore worthwhile waiting a little longer before interrupting, to see what the child has to say.)

When the researchers asked the teachers to comment on video recordings of their teaching sessions, they frequently referred to pupils’ gaze behaviour, showing that they were aware of it. Given that teachers did detect children’s gaze-related cues, what did the teachers make of the gaze behaviour in actual teaching situations? In a second phase of the study the researchers looked at this question more closely.

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How aware were teachers of pupils' eye gaze behaviour and how did they interpret it?

In the second phase of the study a different group of teachers were given a questionnaire designed to explore their explicit understanding of children’s gaze behaviour in relation to pupils’ interest, thinking and comprehension during lessons.

The evidence showed that:

these teachers were aware that children’s gaze behaviours were associated with their thinking but interpreted it in different ways; and
they also showed tentative awareness that GA increased when pupils were thinking about ‘hard questions’.

In the questionnaires the teachers were asked how they interpret gaze behaviour. The data showed that they initially associated looking at the teacher with child understanding and thinking. However when asked ‘When are you most likely to see a child avert their gaze?’ they did predict more GA while thinking, particularly in response to hard questions. So when the teachers were asked to think explicitly about gaze aversion they did associate it with thinking and concentration.
The authors of the study suggest that teachers are instinctively aware that gaze behaviour is linked with thinking. But they found that teachers did not always distinguish between the pupil continuing to think about a problem, the pupil listening and concentrating on what the teacher is saying and the pupil giving up because they find it too difficult.

The study also discussed eye gaze behaviour in relation to assessment for learning approaches. For example, when allowing children time to answer a question (wait time) it might be helpful if teachers can use eye gaze behaviour to understand what mental processes are going on in the child. This would then help the teacher to make a response that prompts the child’s further learning most effectively – a child who is stuck will require an oral response from the teacher that is different from a child who may have almost worked out an answer.

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How was the study carried out?

The researchers conducted two sub-studies.

For study 1:
The researchers video recorded 12 teachers’ interactions with 3 different pupils in individual situations (a total of 36 children aged 7-12 years in 8 schools) and looked at whether the teachers a) detected the children’s gaze cues and b) made a response related to their patterns of gaze and GA. The researchers analysed the interactions in relation to:

whether or not teachers interrupted the child during thinking time when answering questions; and
each child’s pattern of gaze behaviour for the thinking stage of each question and answer episode.

Afterwards, the teachers were shown the videos of themselves and asked to comment on their interactions in terms of the children’s non-verbal behaviours and their interpretation and response to those behaviours.

For study 2:
The researchers used a questionnaire to examine whether primary teachers detect children’s gaze behaviour and how they interpret the behaviours in their own teaching situations. This study involved a different sample of 52 teachers.

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What are the implications?

In completing this digest the author began to ask the following questions about the implications for teachers and school leaders:

Teachers

According to the research, teachers find it difficult to interpret GA. Would it be helpful to observe and analyse pupils’ eye gaze behaviour and other cues in relation to their responses to questions in order to develop your knowledge in this area? Would it be helpful to invite a colleague to one of your lessons to carry out similar observations and compare results with you? You might find video recordings of the interactions even more helpful for later analysis.
The study suggests that teachers tend to interrupt pupils before they have given their answer to a question. Would it be helpful to consider gaze aversion, after a pupil has been asked a question, as an indicator of how long you should wait before interrupting them? Would it be helpful to ask a colleague to observe one of your lessons and give you feedback about how accurate you were in doing this?
Would you find it helpful to build into your lesson planning a range of possible strategies you could adopt when you interrupt your pupils’ thinking to support their learning? Could you use your knowledge of the different reasons why children avert their gaze to help you decide what support to give in particular situations?

School leaders

The study suggests that teachers need help in interpreting gaze behaviour. How aware are your teachers about the link between children’s gaze aversion and thinking? Would it be helpful to invite a specialist in to help you explore the findings in more detail?
The evidence presented in the study makes clear links with assessment for learning. Would it help the teachers in your school if they worked in subject or phase teams to develop a shared understanding of pupils’ eye gaze behaviour? Could they follow this up by creating a repertoire of strategies for supporting their pupils’ learning, including, for example, offering pupils prompts that help to sustain teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil dialogue? (see Where can I find out more?)

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Where can I find more?

Practitioners may be interested in other TRIPS digests about pupils' learning and the strategies that can be used to enhance it. The following digests might interest you:

How classroom talk supports reading comprehension.
Available at: http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/research/themes/speakandlisten/classroomtalk/
[Accessed 2/10/07]

Teachers' and students' roles in formative assessment
Available at: http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/research/themes/assessment_for_learning/MonSep151522482003/
[Accessed 2/10/07]

Resources linked to the study
Helping children think: deliberately averting your gaze as a learning strategy. Available at:
http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/research/themes/thinkingskills/Helpingstrategy/ [Accessed 2/10/07]
The researchers in this study investigated the impact of using gaze aversion (i.e. looking away) with children to see how it would affect their problem-solving abilities.
Further information about gaze aversion and an explanation of the research undertaken by Stirling University can be found at: http://www.psychology.stir.ac.uk/staff/lcalderwood/GazeAversionResearch.htm
[Accessed: 2/10/07].
You can also find out more about this project by contacting Gwyneth Doherty-Sneddon at Stirling University: gwyneth.doherty-sneddon@stir.ac.uk

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